SUBJECT: ENGLISH LANGUAGE

CLASS: JSS 2 (GRADE 8)

TOPIC: COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF LANGUAGE FUNDAMENTALS

---

1. REVIEW OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

In English phonetics, we distinguish between letters (alphabet) and sounds (phonemes). There are 26 letters but 44 sounds.

A. Vowels (20 Sounds)

Vowels are sounds produced without any obstruction of airflow in the mouth.

• Monophthongs (Pure Vowels - 12): These are single vowel sounds.
  • Examples: /i:/ as in See, /æ/ as in Cat, /ɒ/ as in Hot, /u:/ as in Too.
• Diphthongs (8): These are sounds formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable (a glide).
  • Examples: /eɪ/ as in Pay, /aɪ/ as in Fly, /əʊ/ as in Go.

B. Consonants (24 Sounds)

Consonants are sounds produced by restricting or closing the flow of air using the lips, teeth, or tongue.

• Voiced Consonants: The vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/).
• Voiceless Consonants: No vibration in the vocal cords (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/).

---

2. SPEECH CLUSTERS (CONSONANT CLUSTERS)

A consonant cluster occurs when two or more consonant sounds appear together in a word without a vowel sound between them.

Types of Clusters:

1. Initial Clusters (At the beginning):
   • Blue, Street, Play, Drink.
2. Final Clusters (At the end):
   • Hand, Best, Milk, Helps.

Illustration:

Word: STREET

• STR (Cluster of 3 consonants) + EE (Vowel) + T (Consonant).

---

3. QUESTIONS AND THEIR TAGS (QUESTION TAGS)

Question tags are short questions added to the end of a statement to ask for confirmation or agreement.

The Golden Rules:

1. Positive Statement $\rightarrow$ Negative Tag
   • Example: You are a student, aren't you?
2. Negative Statement $\rightarrow$ Positive Tag
   • Example: She is not coming, is she?
3. Tense Consistency: The tag must use the same auxiliary verb and tense as the main sentence.
4. Pronouns Only: Always use a pronoun (he, she, it, they, we) in the tag, never a proper noun.

Examples:

• Statement: Musa can swim. $\rightarrow$ Tag: Can't he?
• Statement: They haven't eaten. $\rightarrow$ Tag: Have they?
• Statement: We finished the work. $\rightarrow$ Tag: Didn't we? (Use 'did' for simple past).

---

4. REVIEW OF LANGUAGE SKILLS

To be proficient in English, a student must master four primary skills:

1. Listening (Receptive): The ability to accurately receive and interpret messages. Example: Following a teacher’s instructions.
2. Speaking (Productive): Using verbal speech to convey meaning. Example: Participating in a class debate.
3. Reading (Receptive): Processing written text to understand information. Example: Reading a comprehension passage.
4. Writing (Productive): Using symbols (letters) to communicate ideas. Example: Writing a letter to a friend.

---

5. REVIEW OF LETTER AND ESSAY WRITING

A. Letter Writing

B. Essay Writing (Types)

1. Narrative Essay: Tells a story (e.g., "My Last Summer Holiday"). It follows a sequence of events.
2. Descriptive Essay: Paints a picture with words (e.g., "My School Principal"). Focuses on sensory details (look, smell, sound).
3. Expository Essay: Explains a process or provides information (e.g., "How to Cook Jollof Rice").
4. Argumentative Essay: Aims to persuade the reader to accept a point of view (e.g., "Day Students Perform Better Than Boarding Students").

---

CLASS EXERCISE/PRACTICE

1. Phonetics: List three words that contain the diphthong /aɪ/ (as in "Price").
2. Clusters: Underline the consonant clusters in these words: Spray, Blast, Text.
3. Question Tags: Provide the correct tags for:
   • It is raining, ________?
   • The boys won't fail, ________?
4. Writing: What is the main difference between the closing of a formal letter and an informal letter?

---

Teacher's Note: Remember, in JSS 2, your writing should be organized into clear paragraphs: Introduction, Body, and Conclusion!